How important was portraiture for historians’ understanding of Napoleon’s image?
By Tara Ghias, Third Year History Student
Portraiture is a very important source for historians in understanding not only the image Napoleon crafted of himself but also the legend that developed of him throughout the nineteenth century due to the emergence of romantic sensibilities and nostalgia for a period of imperial greatness. This form of media allows historians to examine both the myth of Napoleon, that was constructed largely by Napoleon’s own propagandist strategies, and the legend, the image that appeared after his reign. The two portraits that will be discussed throughout help us witness the differences between the myth of Napoleon and the legend; one portrays him in his imperial military uniform, with a majestic aura, whereas the other is of his first abdication in 1814, a key low point in his career.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century, France had fallen into a turmoil never witnessed before. Revolution broke out where the aging traditions were abolished, social democracy established and even a King was executed. With the violent atmosphere surrounding the French revolution, people yearned for peace and stability and Napoleon emerges as the man with the capabilities to do this. He has been described by David Bell as ‘bold and brilliant but also shrewd’, understanding how to exploit the changes the Revolution produced to suit his own political purposes. Napoleon always projected the image of the ‘good republican’ while being in a similar position as the Bourbon kings; he even proceeded to crown himself Emperor in 1804. The year of 1812 marks a turning point in Napoleon’s career as the tide began to turn against him .The penultimate defeat came at Waterloo in 1815 but Napoleon would not let that loss dictate his legacy, as Alan Forrest has argued, in Propaganda and the Legitimisation of Power in Napoleonic France, when he was exiled on St. Helena, he embarked on ‘his last and greatest propaganda campaign, to over the hearts and minds of prosperity’. This shows a certain determination in Napoleon’s character in trying to protect his legacy he produced by any means necessary, even when he away from the centre of political life.
Napoleon used propaganda very skilfully but also carefully throughout his reign to present an image of himself that reinforced his legitimacy as supreme leader of France and shape his legacy in the minds of generations to come. He used media such as art, music, theatre and ‘Napoleon made careful use of that wide range to project the political images he wished to convey’. He promoted portraiture heavily during his reign, especially of himself in campaigns abroad; these paintings would depict him in all his greatness to be then returned to France for all the people to see. Early on in his reign, government spending on art increased and continued to remain at a high level for the duration of the empire. Napoleon formed a strong relationship with early young romantic painters as their art focused more on the celebration of an individual’s genius rather than a collective force, fitting with Napoleon’s desire to create the image of an individual romantic hero. He succeeded in using art for political gain as artists believed in his transformative power and genius; they were desperate for someone with Napoleon’s grandeur and vision after the dark days of the Revolution. An important imperial artist was Antoine Jean Gross (1771-1835) who, after suffering mixed fortunes during the French revolution, benefitted greatly from Napoleon’s system of patronage. He painted themes relating to foreign campaigns, often exaggerating victories achieved by the imperial forces as for Napoleon everything done abroad was ‘done with public opinion in France in mind’. Moreover, Napoleon prioritised the distribution of these pieces to all people as he wanted to be visible for the ordinary people; paintings could achieve this. However, it would be important to mention that the images Napoleon produced of his reign had less of an impact on contemporaries and more on the future generations in the nineteenth century. Napoleon’s propaganda was ‘not all successful as the public came to realise that the media only published what the government wanted them to know’, dispelling the prominent assumption that Napoleon had complete hegemony over the press and media during his reign. Portraiture and official court paintings was one area where he did still hold authority over and that is key for historians to understand Napoleon’s own mind when it came to crafting his image.
Portraiture is a media form that allows us to examine the image that Napoleon constructed for himself with the purpose of it to remain in the minds of generations to come after him. The visual aspect of portraiture allows the viewer to absorb the message the painting is presenting; Napoleonic art was well known for its lavish colours and grand spectacles. The use of this vivid imagery would entrance anyone who would behold such a majestic piece of work as Napoleon only sought out the best artists for imperial art. The portrait The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries is a useful piece of imperial art that allow us to understand the myth and image Napoleon promoted of himself during his reign. Moreover, since it was commissioned by Scottish nobleman, Alexander Hamilton, in 1811, this painting can be used as a primary source into discovering the construction of the imperial hero that Napoleon created through his many means of state propaganda. The painting’s creator was Jacques Louis David who, after suffering mixed fortunes throughout the Revolution, he had risen to fame under Napoleon to the ‘position of chief visual propagandist, tasked with producing paintings of Napoleon in the style of the Roman Caesars’. David’s portrait is of Napoleon wearing his Imperial Guard Foot Grenadier’s uniform in his study at Tuileries. In the background of the painting, there are scrolls and papers, clearly indicating he was carrying out administration duties. The whole aura of this painting is much different to earlier works by David of Napoleon, like ‘Napoleon crossing the Alps’, which focus much more on his military accomplishments and god-like invincible nature. The former of the paintings shows Napoleon in more of the role as the administrator and state leader; clear contrast from the military general persona that dominated the early years of his tenure. As Simon Lee has argued, in A Newly Discover Portrait of Napoleon by Jacques-Louis David, from about 1806 the nation had started to tire of war and constant demand for man power to fight in foreign campaigns. This supports the conception that Napoleon went about altering the perception of him as an insatiable warmonger to the defender of the nation as he understood the mood of the people had shifted away from military glory. The painting of Napoleon in his Study at Tuileries exemplifies this transition from his image from military to civil leader, general to Emperor, proving to historians that he understood the public mood.
Portraits, such as The Emperor Napoleon at his study in Tuileries, were used by Napoleon to generate this myth of pure majesty and greatness; a symbol for not only French citizens but all people to admire. There is a clear distinction between the myth and legend of Napoleon; as Sudhir Hazareesingh has explained, in The Legend of Napoleon, the attempt of Napoleon to control his public image through propagandist strategies was the myth whereas the legend was much broader and more heterogenous phenomenon, developing after 1815. Napoleon played a much closer hand in forging the myth surrounding him whereas the legend was developed through others influence after his death in 1821.
He starts working on his public image very early on during his campaigns in Italy in the 1790s; by the time he arrives back from Egypt the hero and saviour myth has been established. Philip Dwyer argues, in Napoleon Bonaparte as Hero and Saviour, that there was three predominant models around Napoleon that the contemporary media used: ‘the all-conquering general, the virtuous republican and the man who brought peace to the continent.’ These images became the foundation of the ‘hero-saviour’ myth that circulated during the early nineteenth century, especially since the rest of Europe was viewing Napoleon’s regime as adopting all the monarchical trappings present in the monarchy. That ‘hero-saviour’ myth possessed all characteristics needed for him to become a great figure in the minds of his people; Napoleon crafted the ideal image of a ruler through having the media distribute that model. In France he managed to cultivate a multifaceted image for himself; the old conquering general but also the virtuous republican who could reunite factions within French society. After years of civil war and uncertainty, Napoleon would be the one to bring peace to the continent under enlightened rule. Early on in his campaigns in Italy he had ‘suffered at the hands of the hostile journalists working for massively expanded revolutionary press’ therefore he knew it was vital to crafting his public persona that he have a dynamic relationship with his followers. This applied especially to the artists and writers of the day, who were not in any sense controlled by him but more along the lines of being influenced by him. It could be argued that the time that Napoleon got the best opportunity to dictate his own story was once he was sent to exile to Alba in 1814. In exile, Napoleon writes his memoirs, containing long quotes where he discusses his own significance. These memoirs allow us to witness the myth he forms of himself; a hero whose ultimate misfortunes had little to do with him own character but of others. They are then published around the mid 19th century and are seen as a concrete source of the Napoleonic myth as they allow us to delve into the mind of Napoleon in his most vulnerable position. However, some historians may argue that Napoleon’s myth reveals much more about the 19th century than his character; artists who painted Napoleon would not personally know him well, they would just paint what the imperial state instructed them too.
Portraiture of Napoleon after his death give us insight into the legend that was not only forming but also circulating among societies in the mid-nineteenth century. With Napoleon’s death and the collapse of the imperial state, artists were free to interpret the general in however they liked; there was no censorship or political coercion as previously when the state, under Napoleon’s sovereignty, closely monitored the message artists were presenting in their work. The portrait Napoleon Bonaparte abdicated in Fontainebleau by Paul Delaroche contrasts heavily to the earlier portrait discussed by David; the latter depicted Napoleon in his imperial guards’ uniform, at the height of his power, whereas the former sees Napoleon at his lowest position after his empire has fallen apart.20 It is clear to deduce which one Napoleon had more influence over. Furthermore, it can be seen that the legend of Napoleon was something he could not control in anyway, even if he tried to lay the foundations of it during his lifetime.
The portrait Napoleon Bonaparte abdicated in Fontainebleau allows us to analyse the image of Napoleon that was being distributed across Europe and how it cemented the legend that formed. Painted by Paul Delaroche, one of the most famous painters of the mid 19th century, in 1845, it depicts the once illustrious Emperor on the 31st March 1814, the day Paris fell to the invading allies. Napoleon is shown slumped in his chair with Delaroche perfectly capturing the moment that he realises that he must abdicate his throne; the Empire he worked so vigorously to establish would be dissembled along with all he’s achieved. Napoleon’s posture in the portrait makes it clear to the viewer that he understands that glory is in the past and his fall is closely behind him. The melancholy mood of the portrait fits quite well with Delaroche’s style of art as he often painted unsettled nature, suffering increasingly from depression during his own life. Though he was clearly fascinated by Napoleon as he painted him several times, Delaroche didn’t follow same course as imperial artists in portraying Napoleon in a majestic form. He focused more on the human element of the legend by showing him at his darkest and most fragile times. Delaroche’s other Napoleon portrait, Napoleon crossing the Alps, follows closely along the same lines as his abdication one, in that there is no splendour or military glory; the grand façade that Napoleon deployed for his people has been stripped back and it presents him more of a man, capable of failures. This portrait of Napoleon was painted in 1845, 25 years after his death, and therefore is reliable in helping to examine the legend that emerged after his reign.
The legend of Napoleon came into being after his demise and independent of Napoleon’s own influence; it was moulded by the people of the mid nineteenth century rather than the imperial propagandists, which had been the case in forming the myth of Napoleon. Napoleon left a lasting influence during his brief episode of power; France had relative economic stability during his regime and social reform took place within important institutions in government. As Alexander Grab as argued in Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe, ‘Napoleon’s most important legacy was the creation of a strong central state and his modernisation of French society.’ He managed to create a civilian legacy and save the nation from complete isolation that the revolution had imposed on them. Great minds of the nineteenth century celebrated Napoleon after his death, writing impassion poems in his honour and biographies of his life; Scottish historical novelist Walter Scott published his Life of Napoleon in 1820, with an initial critical perspective yet at the end ultimately holding deep sympathy for Napoleon. The legend of Napoleon was full of complexities as people loved the idea of the self-made hero who controlled his own destiny nevertheless could not escape the reality of his reign, one filled with oppressive dictatorship. As Sudhir Hazareesingh has explained it ‘Napoleon’s legacy has its dark aspects as during most of his reign he governed France by despotic means’. Napoleon may be celebrated as an individual but there was a critique of his politics among certain circles in French society, especially after the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. However, that didn’t dispel the public mood towards as even after the defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon was revered more as a defender of French revolutionary ideals rather than a fallen hero; ‘he became a role model for successive generations, idolised by a wide range of groups within society.’ Furthermore, Napoleon possessed social popularity among the people, perhaps for his revolutionary reforms which created new opportunities for social mobility. When these were reversed under the monarchy, Napoleon quickly became a focal point for social protest and the symbol for a more egalitarian society. The legend that formed of Napoleon was complicated, on one hand he was celebrated for his military glory’s and innovative changes to the administration of the state while being criticised for his controlling manner and oppressive regime. Delaroche’s painting of Napoleon’s first abdication creates its own image on Napoleon; it shows of a once powerful leader, still dressed in his imperial guard uniform signalling his loyalty to the army, who has been defeated by time and is aware that his glory days are now over.
Portraiture’s visual affect allows us to absorb the image the painter is engraving in their work, making it a crucial piece of propaganda. Napoleon recognised the importance of paintings and used it extensively throughout his reign to manufacture the legacy he hoped would succeed him. However, after his death, different interpretations of the famous leader filtered through the once censored media and artists were free to depict their own image of Napoleon, which could then be engrossed into the Napoleonic legend.
Bibliography
Primary Sources
The Emperor Napoleon in his study at Tuileries by Jacques Louis David (1812, Washington D.C., National Gallery of Art)
Napoleon crossing the Alps by Jacques Louis David (1801, France, Rueil-Malmaison)
Napoleon’s abdication at Fontainebleau by Paul Delaroche (1840, Paris, Musee de l’Armee)
Napoleon crossing the Alps by Paul Delaroche (1850, London, St. James Palace)
Secondary Sources
Bell, D., Napoleon: A short introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), p.5
Bjerstrom, C., ‘The Myth and Legend of Napoleon’ (University of Bristol, February 2019)
Cull, N., Culbert, D., Welch D., Propaganda and Mass Persuasion, (California: Abc-Clio E-books, 2003), p.260-261
Dwyer, P., ‘Napoleon Bonaparte as Hero and Savior’, French History, 18 (2004), p. 379
Forrest, A., ‘Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in Napoleonic France’, French History ,18 (2004), p.426-443
Hazareesingh, S., The Legend of Napoleon, (London: Granta, 2004), p.4
Grab, A., Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p.58
Lee, S., ‘A Newly Discovered Portrait of Napoleon by Jacques Louis David’, The Burlington Magazine, 155, (2013), 687-689
Taylor P., ‘Munitions of the Minds: A History of Propaganda’ (Manchester: Manchester university Press, 2003), p.154
‘Napoleon I at Fontainebleau, 31 March 1814’. https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/paintings/napoleon-i-at-fontainebleau-31-march-1814/ [accessed 25th April 2019]
‘Napoleon at Fontainebleau, 31 March 1814’. https://www.rct.uk/collection/405838/napoleon-at-fontainebleau-31-march-1814 [accessed 25th April 2019]
Cover Image Credit: Kelly Tungay on Unsplash