Ancient Fact File: Octavian

By Esme Hill, 1st Year Ancient History

Bust of Augustus wearing the Civic Crown at Glyptothek, Munich.

Born in Rome, 63 BCE, to a rich but otherwise fairly unimportant family in Roman society, Octavian’s eventual rise to one of the most important figures in Roman history seemed initially unlikely. However, his adoption by his uncle, Julius Caesar, provided a clear gateway into Roman politics, which only widened after Caesar’s death in 44 BCE - and would ultimately allow him to become the great Augustus.

In the resulting power struggle after Caesar’s death, consuls Hirtius and Pansa were killed at the Battle of Mutina, and Octavian was left as the only defense against Mark Antony and his aims of ruling the republic alone. Though an inexperienced, 20-year-old upstart was unlikely to be the Senate’s leader of choice, his demands for the consulship were accompanied by their own stolen army: and therefore difficult to deny. 

This would be short-lived however, as in 43 BCE, Octavian recognised that support was needed if he wished to maintain his own power, and instead formed the second triumvirate, which shared his rule with Antony and Lepidus. Despite this, it is undeniable that at a young age, Octavian had already proven himself to be a capable military leader and political strategist. 

A coin celebrating the establishment of the Second Triumvirate, featuring Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right).

The other key to maintaining his power was avoiding acting as a dictator, as doing so risked a fate similar to that of Julius Caesar. This therefore meant that Octavian could not maintain power the way he had gained it - by his familial connections and threatening violence. However, he still needed to remove the opposition. 

Lepidus was left powerless upon the desertion of his own soldiers. Yet, Mark Antony’s connections with Egypt, primarily through his wife, Cleopatra, gave him a financial and military strength that was difficult to rival. Even so, after the battles of Actium (31 BCE) and Alexandria (30 BCE), both Antony and Cleopatra were dead and Rome was entirely Octavian’s. 

The Battle of Actium, by Laureys a Castro, painted 1672, National Maritime Museum, London

The problem of self-image, however, still cast a dark shadow in the background of his success. Military success was a key aspect of any good ruler, yet civil wars such as Actium and Alexandria were against Roman core values. To avoid such complications, the wars were twisted to project Cleopatra as the targeted foreign enemy, rather than Mark Antony; Octavian was saving Rome, not harming it. 

As for the problematic association with Caesar the dictator, Octavian formally renounced his unconstitutional powers in 27 BCE, so posing himself as a true man of the Republic. Cleverly, upon giving back these illegal powers, Octavian in turn received more legal titles and powers, which ensured he maintained influence without revealing the extent of his control. In doing so, he also received the title Augustus (illustrious one) from the senate. 

Augustus went on to remodel Rome into the iconic marble landscape which has become ingrained within the modern view of classic architecture. The elaborate construction of his forum and temples such as the Pantheon were key to his reputation - in some cases, even taking the credit for those by his right-hand man Agrippa. He held games, gave out handouts to the poor and commissioned poetry which hailed him as protector of Rome. Under this new image, Augustus appeared not only as a military force but also as the protector of peace, a man of culture and the saviour of the Roman Republic and its people. 

Augustus as Jupiter.

In doing so, Augustus successfully removed the problematic associations of his past. All that was left was the issue of protecting this persona and securing his legacy beyond his death. Selecting an heir proved particularly difficult - Augustus had no biological children of his own, and little relationship with his wife Livia’s sons. Instead, Augustus’ preferred heirs were his grandsons: Gaius and Lucius. However, his efforts to enforce positive public imagery of them were ultimately fruitless, as both died young and Livia’s son, Tiberius, instead became heir.

As Augustus grew older, his desire to secure the future of his own image never ceased. In 13-14 CE, he finished writing his autobiography, the Res Gestae. Outside his family mausoleum, his achievements were immortalised in bronze and above was a large statue of himself looking over Rome. By memorialising himself in both sculpture and writing, he ensured he remained the so-called saviour of the Republic and Pater Patriae (father of the fatherland). The great Augustus’ influence is still seen in the very fabric of Rome today, and he will forever watch over the city and his people.

Edited by Scarlett Bantin