Saturnalia: the origins of Christmas?
By George Leggett, 3rd Year Ancient History
We conventionally think of Christmas as a Christian tradition, a celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ. However, celebrations at the time of year we know as “Christmastime” may in fact stem from a tradition dating back to republican-era Rome, known as Saturnalia.
We do not have a specific date for the first Saturnalia, though Livy connects the dedicating of the Temple of Saturn around 497 BCE to the institution of Saturnalia. We do, however, know that it underwent a major reform around the year 217 BCE, after one of Rome’s heaviest defeats during the Punic Wars with Carthage, at the Battle of Lake Trasimene. After this, the traditional Roman customs were replaced by the adoption of Greek rites, including a public banquet followed by chants of io saturnalia-an exclamation conventionally used to express humour, announce a Roman triumph, or praise the god Bacchus (Dionysus in Greek mythology). This took place on the single day of the 17th December, but Saturnalia eventually became a week-long celebration from the 17th to the 23rd December, notably close to the assigned date of the birth of Jesus Christ.
It is often debated whether Jesus was in fact born on the 25th December, but some scholars believe this is merely an assigned date, and he may actually have been born in the spring. Saturnalia itself was in fact the Roman adaptation of the Greek holiday of Kronia, which was celebrated in the summer. Christian historian Roger Pearse asserts that Pope Julius I was the first to officially declare 25th December as the official date of Jesus’ birth, but notes that the evidence for this claim is nonexistent or unmentioned.
The popularity of Saturnalia continued into the later years of the Roman Empire. Some contemporary scholars believe that after the Roman Empire came under Christian rule, some of the traditions of Saturnalia influenced those that were celebrated during the Christmas period. As for those traditions, as well as the traditional banquet, the period of Saturnalia featured typically forbidden or frowned upon social taboos being allowed, as well as societal structure being temporarily uprooted, with the knowledge that things would return to the status quo once Saturnalia ended. Gambling, normally a taboo, was allowed across society, even for enslaved people. Enslaved people were also allowed remarkable freedom in comparison to their usual status, being able to enjoy a meal with their masters-some ancient texts indicate that the enslaved ate first, or their masters may have even served the meal to them. Roman poet Horace also refers to a “December liberty” where enslaved people could speak completely freely around their masters.
Schools, workplaces and courts were suspended for the day of the 17th (extended to three days by Augustus, four days by Caligula and five days by Claudius). Some writings say that there was also a darker side to Saturnalia, stating that gladiators killed in the arena were offered to Saturn as sacrifice during the period, with games being held for ten days in December. Most significantly, the tradition of exchanging gifts that we still see today at Christmas took place during Saturnalia, likely on December 23rd, the final day of Saturnalia. This day is referred to as the Sigillaria.
It is unclear if women had a similar societal role reversal to slaves during the period, though it is likely they took part in the gift exchange. Matronalia, a festival celebrating the Roman goddess Juno and motherhood, is often seen as an equivalent to Saturnalia. Matronalia also involved enslaved people receiving meals, and, uniquely, Roman husbands offering prayers and gifts to their wives.
Saturnalia, as mentioned, was dedicated to the god Saturn (the Roman equivalent of the Greek god Kronos), from which its name derives. In mythology, he once ruled the entire universe as chief god before being overthrown by his son, Jupiter. Saturn was a god of agriculture and of time, with Saturday and the planet Saturn owing their name to him. It has been argued by historian E.A. Palmer that the switch in religious tradition in 217 BCE was an attempt to appease the Carthiginian counterpart to Saturn, the god Ba’al Hammon.
The festival is thought to have celebrated harvest and sowing. According to late Roman historian Macrobius, one of our key sources on Saturnalia, the festival also anticipated the upcoming winter solstice.